Complete Queen Singles List - Queenpedia.com - A comprehensive Queen Discography, Queen Interviews, Queen History. Everything you need to know about Freddie Mercury, Brian May, Roger Taylor, and John Deacon./. Mary I, also called Mary Tudor, byname Bloody Mary, (born February 18, 1516, Greenwich, near London, England—died November 17, 1558, London), the first queen to rule England (1553–58) in her own right.

FatherMotherReligionSignatureElizabeth was the daughter of and, his second wife, who was executed two-and-a-half years after Elizabeth's birth. Anne's marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Her half-brother, ruled until his death in 1553, bequeathing the crown to and ignoring the claims of his two half-sisters, the and the younger Elizabeth, in spite of. Edward's will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.In 1558 upon Mary's death, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led. One of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the.

This was to evolve into the. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir; however, despite numerous courtships, she never did. She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin twice removed,. She had earlier been responsible for the imprisonment and execution of James's mother,.In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was ' video et taceo' ('I see but say nothing'). In religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution.

After the pope in 1570 and released her subjects from obedience to her, several conspiracies threatened her life, all of which were defeated with the help of her ministers' secret service. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the major powers of.

She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the, France, and Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid. England's victory against the in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history.As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated for her. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the day.

Elizabeth's reign became known as the. The period is famous for the flourishing of, led by playwrights such as and, and for the seafaring prowess of English adventurers such as. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, who enjoyed more than her share of luck. Towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged as a charismatic performer and a dogged survivor in an era when government was ramshackle and limited, and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones. After the short reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity.

Elizabeth's parents, Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Anne was executed within three years of Elizabeth's birth.Elizabeth was born at and was named after her grandmothers,. She was the second child of born in wedlock to survive infancy.

Her mother was Henry's second wife,. At birth, Elizabeth was the to the throne of England.

Her older half-sister, had lost her position as a legitimate heir when Henry annulled his marriage to Mary's mother, to marry Anne, with the intent to sire a male heir and ensure the Tudor succession. She was baptised on 10 September 1533; Archbishop, the, the and the stood as her godparents.

A canopy was carried at the ceremony over the three-day old child by her uncle, and.Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragon's death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession. Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry married, who died shortly after the birth of their son, in 1537. From his birth, Edward was undisputed to the throne.

Elizabeth was placed in his household and carried the, or baptismal cloth, at his christening. A rare portrait of Elizabeth prior to her accession, attributed to. It was painted for her father in c. 1546.Elizabeth's first, wrote that she was 'as toward a child and as gentle of conditions as ever I knew any in my life'., better known by her later, married name of Catherine 'Kat' Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until her death in 1565.

Champernowne taught Elizabeth four languages: French, Italian and Spanish. By the time became her tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, and Italian.

Under Grindal, a talented and skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek. By age 12 she was able to translate her stepmother 's religious work from English into Italian, Latin, and French, which she presented to her father as a New Year's gift. From her teenage years and throughout her life she translated works in Latin and Greek by numerous classical authors, including the of, the of, a treatise by, and the of. A translation of Tacitus from Library, one of only four surviving English translations from the early modern era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own in 2019, after a detailed analysis of the handwriting and paper was undertaken.After Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education under the tutor of Prince Edward, a sympathetic teacher who believed that learning should be engaging.

Our knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling and precocity comes largely from Ascham's memoirs. By the time her formal education ended in 1550, Elizabeth was one of the best educated women of her generation. At the end of her life, Elizabeth was also believed to speak, and in addition to the languages mentioned above. The Venetian ambassador stated in 1603 that she 'possessed these languages so thoroughly that each appeared to be her native tongue'. Historian suggests that she was probably taught Cornish by, Groom of the Privy Chamber and later Chamberlain of the Exchequer.

Thomas SeymourHenry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at age nine., Henry's widow, soon married, Edward VI's uncle and the brother of the Lord Protector,. The couple took Elizabeth into their household at. There Elizabeth experienced an emotional crisis that some historians believe affected her for the rest of her life. Thomas Seymour, approaching age 40 but having charm and 'a powerful sex appeal', engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth. These included entering her bedroom in his nightgown, tickling her and slapping her on the buttocks. Parr, rather than confront her husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in. Twice she accompanied him in tickling Elizabeth, and once held her while he cut her black gown 'into a thousand pieces.'

However, after Parr discovered the pair in an embrace, she ended this state of affairs. In May 1548, Elizabeth was sent away.However, Thomas Seymour continued scheming to control the royal family and tried to have himself appointed the governor of the King's person. When Parr died after childbirth on 5 September 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on marrying her. The details of his former behaviour towards Elizabeth emerged, and for his brother and the, this was the last straw. In January 1549, Seymour was arrested on suspicion of plotting to marry Elizabeth and overthrow the Lord Protector. Elizabeth, living at, would admit nothing. Her stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, who reported, 'I do see it in her face that she is guilty'.

Seymour was beheaded on 20 March 1549. Philip and Mary I, during whose reign Elizabeth was heir presumptiveThe show of solidarity between the sisters did not last long. Mary, a devout Catholic, was determined to crush the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been educated, and she ordered that everyone attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to outwardly conform. Mary's initial popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans to marry, the son of and an active Catholic. Discontent spread rapidly through the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a focus for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.In January and February 1554, broke out; it was soon suppressed. Elizabeth was brought to court, and interrogated regarding her role, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.

Though it is unlikely that she had plotted with the rebels, some of them were known to have approached her. Mary's closest confidant, Charles V's ambassador, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and the Chancellor, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial. Elizabeth's supporters in the government, including, convinced Mary to spare her sister in the absence of hard evidence against her. Instead, on 22 May, Elizabeth was moved from the Tower to, where she was to spend almost a year under house arrest in the charge of Sir. Crowds cheered her all along the way. Hatfield House, where Elizabeth lived during Mary's reignOn 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to attend the final stages of Mary's.

If Mary and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen. If, on the other hand, Mary gave birth to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply.

When it became clear that Mary was not pregnant, no one believed any longer that she could have a child. Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne in 1556, acknowledged the new political reality and cultivated his sister-in-law. She was a better ally than the chief alternative, who had grown up in France and was betrothed to the. When his wife fell ill in 1558, King Philip sent the to consult with Elizabeth.

This interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she had returned to live in October 1555. By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for her government.

On 6 November, Mary recognised Elizabeth as her heir. On 17 November 1558, Mary died and Elizabeth succeeded to the throne. Elizabeth I in her coronation robes, patterned with and trimmed withElizabeth became queen at the age of 25, and declared her intentions to her Council and other peers who had come to Hatfield to swear allegiance. The speech contains the first record of her adoption of the medieval of the sovereign's 'two bodies': the body natural and the:My lords, the law of nature moves me to sorrow for my sister; the burden that is fallen upon me makes me amazed, and yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained to obey His appointment, I will thereto yield, desiring from the bottom of my heart that I may have assistance of His grace to be the minister of His heavenly will in this office now committed to me. And as I am but one body naturally considered, though by His permission a body politic to govern, so shall I desire you all. To be assistant to me, that I with my ruling and you with your service may make a good account to Almighty God and leave some comfort to our posterity on earth.

I mean to direct all my actions by good advice and counsel.As her wound through the city on the eve of the, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Protestant flavour. Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were 'wonderfully ravished'.

The following day, 15 January 1559, a date chosen by her astrologer, Elizabeth was crowned and anointed by, the Catholic, in. She was then presented for the people's acceptance, amidst a deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells. Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen in England, the country was still in a state of anxiety over the perceived Catholic threat at home and overseas, as well as the choice of whom she would marry.

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The Pelican Portrait. The was thought to nourish its young with its own blood and served to depict Elizabeth as the 'mother of the Church of England'.Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have been much debated by scholars. She was a Protestant, but kept Catholic symbols (such as the crucifix), and downplayed the role of sermons in defiance of a key Protestant belief.In terms of public policy she favoured pragmatism in dealing with religious matters.

The question of her legitimacy was a key concern: although she was technically illegitimate under both Protestant and Catholic law, her retroactively-declared illegitimacy under the English church was not a serious bar compared to having never been legitimate as the Catholics claimed she was. For this reason alone, it was never in serious doubt that Elizabeth would embrace Protestantism.Elizabeth and her advisers perceived the threat of a Catholic crusade against heretical England. Elizabeth therefore sought a Protestant solution that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants; she would not tolerate the more radical though, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms. As a result, the parliament of 1559 started to legislate for a church based on the, with the monarch as its head, but with many Catholic elements, such as vestments.The backed the proposals strongly, but the bill of supremacy met opposition in the, particularly from the bishops. Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the time, including the.

This enabled supporters amongst peers to outvote the bishops and conservative peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the title of rather than the more contentious title of, which many thought unacceptable for a woman to bear. The new became law on 8 May 1559. All public officials were to swear an oath of loyalty to the monarch as the supreme governor or risk disqualification from office; the laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat of the persecution of dissenters practised by Mary. At the same time, a new was passed, which made attendance at church and the use of an adapted version of the 1552 compulsory, though the penalties for, or failure to attend and conform, were not extreme.

Marriage questionFrom the start of Elizabeth's reign, it was expected that she would marry and the question arose to whom. Although she received many offers for her hand, she never married and was childless; the reasons for this are not clear. Historians have speculated that Thomas Seymour had put her off sexual relationships. She considered several suitors until she was about fifty. Her last courtship was with, 22 years her junior. While risking possible loss of power like her sister, who played into the hands of King, marriage offered the chance of an heir. However, the choice of a husband might also provoke political instability or even insurrection.

Robert Dudley. Pair of of Elizabeth and Leicester, c. 1575,. Their friendship lasted for over thirty years, until his death.In the spring of 1559, it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her childhood friend. It was said that, his wife, was suffering from a 'malady in one of her breasts' and that the Queen would like to marry Dudley if his wife should die.

By the autumn of 1559, several foreign suitors were vying for Elizabeth's hand; their impatient envoys engaged in ever more scandalous talk and reported that a marriage with her was not welcome in England: 'There is not a man who does not cry out on him and her with indignation. She will marry none but the favoured Robert.' Amy Dudley died in September 1560, from a fall from a flight of stairs and, despite the coroner's finding of accident, many people suspected Dudley of having arranged her death so that he could marry the queen.

Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley for some time. However, William Cecil, and some conservative made their disapproval unmistakably clear. There were even rumours that the nobility would rise if the marriage took place.Among other marriage candidates being considered for the queen, Robert Dudley continued to be regarded as a possible candidate for nearly another decade. Elizabeth was extremely jealous of his affections, even when she no longer meant to marry him herself. In 1564, Elizabeth raised Dudley to the peerage as.

He finally remarried in 1578, to which the queen reacted with repeated scenes of displeasure and lifelong hatred towards his wife,. Still, Dudley always 'remained at the centre of Elizabeth's emotional life', as historian has described the situation. He died shortly after the defeat of the in 1588. After Elizabeth's own death, a note from him was found among her most personal belongings, marked 'his last letter' in her handwriting.

Foreign candidates. Mary's French relatives considered her the rightful Queen of England and had the English arms emblazoned with those of Scotland and France.Elizabeth's first policy toward was to oppose the French presence there. She feared that the French planned to invade England and put her Catholic cousin, on the throne.

Mary was considered by many to be the heir to the English crown, being the granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder sister,. Mary boasted being 'the nearest kinswoman she hath'. Elizabeth was persuaded to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, and though the campaign was inept, the resulting of July 1560 removed the French threat in the north. When Mary returned to Scotland in 1561 to take up the reins of power, the country had an established Protestant church and was run by a council of Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth. Mary refused to ratify the treaty.In 1563 Elizabeth proposed her own suitor, Robert Dudley, as a husband for Mary, without asking either of the two people concerned. Both proved unenthusiastic, and in 1565 Mary married, who carried his own claim to the English throne.

The marriage was the first of a series of errors of judgement by Mary that handed the victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost certainly led. Shortly afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to the murder of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary about the marriage, writing to her:How could a worse choice be made for your honour than in such haste to marry such a subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, public fame has charged with the murder of your late husband, besides the touching of yourself also in some part, though we trust in that behalf falsely.These events led rapidly to Mary's defeat and imprisonment in. The Scottish lords forced her to in favour of her son, who had been born in June 1566. James was taken to to be raised as a Protestant. Mary escaped from in 1568 but after another defeat fled across the border into England, where she had once been assured of support from Elizabeth.

Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow monarch; but she and her council instead chose to play safe. Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, where she was imprisoned for the next nineteen years.

Catholic cause. Sir Francis Walsingham, Elizabeth's, uncovered several plots against her life.Mary was soon the focus for rebellion. In 1569 there was a major Catholic; the goal was to free Mary, marry her to, and put her on the English throne. After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.

In the belief that the revolt had been successful, issued a in 1570, titled, which declared 'Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime' to be excommunicated and a, releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her. Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened with.

The papal bull provoked legislative initiatives against Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention. In 1581, to convert English subjects to Catholicism with 'the intent' to withdraw them from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a, carrying the death penalty. From the 1570s from continental went to England secretly in the cause of the 'reconversion of England'. Many suffered execution, engendering a cult of.Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong incentive to look to Mary Stuart as the legitimate sovereign of England. Mary may not have been told of every Catholic plot to put her on the English throne, but from the of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Duke of Norfolk, to lose his head) to the of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Sir and the royal council keenly assembled a case against her.

At first, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death. By late 1586, she had been persuaded to sanction her trial and execution on the evidence of letters written during the Babington Plot. Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence announced that 'the said Mary, pretending title to the same Crown, had compassed and imagined within the same realm divers things tending to the hurt, death and destruction of our royal person.' On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at, Northamptonshire. After Mary's execution, Elizabeth claimed that she had not intended for the signed execution warrant to be dispatched, and blamed her Secretary, for implementing it without her knowledge. The sincerity of Elizabeth's remorse and whether or not she wanted to delay the warrant have been called into question both by her contemporaries and later historians. Wars and overseas tradeElizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive.

The exception was the English occupation of from October 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure when Elizabeth's allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port. Elizabeth's intention had been to exchange Le Havre for, lost to France in January 1558. Only through the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an aggressive policy. This paid off in the war against Spain, 80% of which was fought at sea. She knighted after his of the globe from 1577 to 1580, and he won fame for his raids on Spanish ports and fleets. An element of and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the queen had little control. Elizabeth receiving Dutch ambassadors, 1560s, attributed toAfter the occupation and loss of in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on the continent until 1585, when she sent an English army to aid the Protestant against Philip II.

This followed the deaths in 1584 of the allies, Prince of Orange, and the Duke of Anjou, and the surrender of a series of Dutch towns to, Philip's governor of the. In December 1584, an alliance between Philip II and the French at undermined the ability of Anjou's brother, to counter domination of the Netherlands. It also extended Spanish influence along the coast of France, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England to invasion. The in the summer of 1585 by the Duke of Parma necessitated some reaction on the part of the English and the Dutch. The outcome was the of August 1585, in which Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch. The treaty marked the beginning of the, which lasted until the in 1604.The expedition was led by her former suitor, the Earl of Leicester. Elizabeth from the start did not really back this course of action.

Her strategy, to support the Dutch on the surface with an English army, while beginning secret peace talks with Spain within days of Leicester's arrival in Holland, had necessarily to be at odds with Leicester's, who wanted and was expected by the Dutch to fight an active campaign. Elizabeth, on the other hand, wanted him 'to avoid at all costs any decisive action with the enemy'. He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post of Governor-General from the Dutch.

Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch ploy to force her to accept sovereignty over the Netherlands, which so far she had always declined. She wrote to Leicester:We could never have imagined (had we not seen it fall out in experience) that a man raised up by ourself and extraordinarily favoured by us, above any other subject of this land, would have in so contemptible a sort broken our commandment in a cause that so greatly touches us in honour. And therefore our express pleasure and commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, you do presently upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to do in our name. Whereof fail you not, as you will answer the contrary at your utmost peril.Elizabeth's 'commandment' was that her emissary read out her letters of disapproval publicly before the Dutch Council of State, Leicester having to stand nearby. This public humiliation of her 'Lieutenant-General' combined with her continued talks for a separate peace with Spain, irreversibly undermined his standing among the Dutch. The military campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds for her starving soldiers. Her unwillingness to commit herself to the cause, Leicester's own shortcomings as a political and military leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Dutch politics led to the failure of the campaign.

Leicester finally resigned his command in December 1587.Spanish Armada. Portrait from 1586–1587, by Nicholas Hilliard, around the time of the voyages of SirMeanwhile, Sir had undertaken a major voyage against Spanish ports and ships in the in 1585 and 1586. In 1587 he made a on, destroying the Spanish fleet of war ships intended for the Enterprise of England, as Philip II had decided to take the war to England.On 12 July 1588, the, a great fleet of ships, set sail for the channel, planning to ferry a Spanish invasion force under the Duke of Parma to the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands.

A combination of miscalculation, misfortune, and an attack of English on 29 July off, which dispersed the ships to the northeast, defeated the Armada. The Armada straggled home to Spain in shattered remnants, after disastrous losses on the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried to struggle back to Spain via the, and then back south past the west coast of Ireland).

Unaware of the Armada's fate, English militias mustered to defend the country under the Earl of Leicester's command. He invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops at in Essex on 8 August. Wearing a silver breastplate over a white velvet dress, she addressed them in one of her:My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourself to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people. I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a King of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any Prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm. Portrait commemorating the defeat of the, depicted in the background.

Elizabeth's hand rests on the globe, symbolising her international power. One of three known versions of the '.When no invasion came, the nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving service at rivalled that of her coronation as a spectacle. The defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. The English took their delivery as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen. However, the victory was not a turning point in the war, which continued and often favoured Spain. The Spanish still controlled the southern provinces of the Netherlands, and the threat of invasion remained.

Sir claimed after her death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the war against Spain:If the late queen would have believed her men of war as she did her scribes, we had in her time beaten that great empire in pieces and made their kings of figs and oranges as in old times. But her Majesty did all by halves, and by petty invasions taught the Spaniard how to defend himself, and to see his own weakness.Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds, Raleigh's verdict has more often been judged unfair. Elizabeth had good reason not to place too much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it herself, 'to be transported with an haviour of vainglory'.In 1589, the year after the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent to Spain the or Counter Armada with 23,375 men and 150 ships, led by Sir as admiral and Sir as general. The English fleet suffered a catastrophic defeat with 11,000–15,000 killed, wounded or died of disease and 40 ships sunk or captured. The advantage England had won upon the destruction of the was lost, and the Spanish victory marked a revival of 's naval power through the next decade. Silver, struck 1593, identifying Elizabeth as ' Queen of England, and Ireland'When the Protestant inherited the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support. It was her first venture into France since the retreat from Le Havre in 1563.

Henry's succession was strongly contested by the and by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the channel ports. The subsequent English campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective., largely ignoring Elizabeth's orders, roamed northern France to little effect, with an army of 4,000 men.

He withdrew in disarray in December 1589, having lost half his troops. In 1591, the campaign of, who led 3,000 men to, was even more of a disaster. As for all such expeditions, Elizabeth was unwilling to invest in the supplies and reinforcements requested by the commanders. Norreys left for London to plead in person for more support. In his absence, a Catholic League army almost destroyed the remains of his army at, north-west France, in May 1591.

In July, Elizabeth sent out another force under, to help Henry IV in besieging. The result was just as dismal. Essex accomplished nothing and returned home in January 1592. Henry abandoned the siege in April. As usual, Elizabeth lacked control over her commanders once they were abroad. 'Where he is, or what he doth, or what he is to do,' she wrote of Essex, 'we are ignorant'.

The chieftain and the other kneel to in submission.Although Ireland was one of her two kingdoms, Elizabeth faced a hostile, and in places virtually autonomous, Irish population that adhered to Catholicism and was willing to defy her authority and plot with her enemies. Her policy there was to grant land to her courtiers and prevent the rebels from giving Spain a base from which to attack England. In the course of a series of uprisings, Crown forces pursued tactics, burning the land and slaughtering man, woman and child. During a revolt in led by, in 1582, an estimated 30,000 Irish people starved to death.

The poet and colonist wrote that the victims 'were brought to such wretchedness as that any stony heart would have rued the same'. Elizabeth advised her commanders that the Irish, 'that rude and barbarous nation', be well treated; but she showed no remorse when force and bloodshed were deemed necessary.Between 1594 and 1603, Elizabeth faced her most severe test in Ireland during the, a revolt that took place at the height of hostilities with, who backed the rebel leader,. In spring 1599, Elizabeth sent, to put the revolt down.

To her frustration, he made little progress and returned to England in defiance of her orders. He was replaced by, who took three years to defeat the rebels. O'Neill finally surrendered in 1603, a few days after Elizabeth's death. Soon afterwards, a peace treaty was signed between England and Spain.RussiaElizabeth continued to maintain the diplomatic relations with the that were originally established by her half-brother, Edward VI. She often wrote to on amicable terms, though the Tsar was often annoyed by her focus on commerce rather than on the possibility of a military alliance. The Tsar even proposed to her once, and during his later reign, asked for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England should his rule be jeopardised. English merchant and explorer, who began his career as a representative of the, became the queen's to the court of Ivan the Terrible.Upon Ivan's death in 1584, he was succeeded by his less-ambitious son.

Unlike his father, Feodor had no enthusiasm in maintaining exclusive trading rights with England. Feodor declared his kingdom open to all foreigners, and dismissed the English ambassador Sir, whose pomposity had been tolerated by Ivan. Elizabeth sent a new ambassador, Dr.

Giles Fletcher, to demand from the regent that he convince the Tsar to reconsider. The negotiations failed, due to Fletcher addressing Feodor with two of his many titles omitted. Elizabeth continued to appeal to Feodor in half appealing, half reproachful letters. She proposed an alliance, something which she had refused to do when offered one by Feodor's father, but was turned down. Muslim states. Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud was the Moorish ambassador to Elizabeth in 1600.Trade and diplomatic relations developed between England and the during the rule of Elizabeth.

England established a trading relationship with in opposition to Spain, selling armour, ammunition, timber, and metal in exchange for Moroccan sugar, in spite of a ban. In 1600, the principal secretary to the Moroccan ruler, visited England as an ambassador to the court of Queen Elizabeth I, to negotiate an against Spain. Elizabeth 'agreed to sell munitions supplies to Morocco, and she and Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur talked on and off about mounting a joint operation against the Spanish'. Discussions, however, remained inconclusive, and both rulers died within two years of the embassy.Diplomatic relations were also established with the with the chartering of the and the dispatch of the first English ambassador to the, in 1578. For the first time, a Treaty of Commerce was signed in 1580.

Numerous envoys were dispatched in both directions and epistolar exchanges occurred between Elizabeth and Sultan. In one correspondence, Murad entertained the notion that had 'much more in common than either did with Roman Catholicism, as both rejected the worship of idols', and argued for an alliance between England and the Ottoman Empire. To the dismay of Catholic Europe, England exported tin and lead (for cannon-casting) and ammunitions to the Ottoman Empire, and Elizabeth seriously discussed joint military operations with during the outbreak of war with Spain in 1585, as Francis Walsingham was lobbying for a direct Ottoman military involvement against the common Spanish enemy. Later yearsThe period after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 brought new difficulties for Elizabeth that lasted until the end of her reign. The conflicts with Spain and in Ireland dragged on, the tax burden grew heavier, and the economy was hit by poor harvests and the cost of war. Prices rose and the standard of living fell.

During this time, repression of Catholics intensified, and Elizabeth authorised commissions in 1591 to interrogate and monitor Catholic householders. To maintain the illusion of peace and prosperity, she increasingly relied on internal spies and propaganda. In her last years, mounting criticism reflected a decline in the public's affection for her. Lord Essex was a favourite of Elizabeth I despite his petulance and irresponsibility.One of the causes for this 'second reign' of Elizabeth, as it is sometimes called, was the changed character of Elizabeth's governing body, the privy council in the 1590s. A new generation was in power. With the exception of Lord Burghley, the most important politicians had died around 1590: the Earl of Leicester in 1588; Sir Francis Walsingham in 1590; and Sir in 1591.

Factional strife in the government, which had not existed in a noteworthy form before the 1590s, now became its hallmark. A bitter rivalry arose between the and, son of Lord Burghley and their respective adherents, and the struggle for the most powerful positions in the state marred politics. The queen's personal authority was lessening, as is shown in the 1594 affair of Dr.

Lopez, her trusted physician. When he was wrongly accused by the Earl of Essex of treason out of personal pique, she could not prevent his execution, although she had been angry about his arrest and seems not to have believed in his guilt.During the last years of her reign, Elizabeth came to rely on the granting of monopolies as a cost-free system of patronage, rather than asking Parliament for more subsidies in a time of war. The practice soon led to, the enrichment of courtiers at the public's expense, and widespread resentment. This culminated in agitation in the House of Commons during the parliament of 1601.

In her famous ' of 30 November 1601 at to a deputation of 140 members, Elizabeth professed ignorance of the abuses, and won the members over with promises and her usual appeal to the emotions:Who keeps their sovereign from the lapse of error, in which, by ignorance and not by intent they might have fallen, what thank they deserve, we know, though you may guess. And as nothing is more dear to us than the loving conservation of our subjects' hearts, what an undeserved doubt might we have incurred if the abusers of our liberality, the thrallers of our people, the wringers of the poor, had not been told us! DeathElizabeth's senior adviser, died on 4 August 1598. His political mantle passed to his son, who soon became the leader of the government. One task he addressed was to prepare the way for a.

Since Elizabeth would never name her successor, Cecil was obliged to proceed in secret. He therefore entered into a with, who had a strong but unrecognised claim. Cecil coached the impatient James to humour Elizabeth and 'secure the heart of the highest, to whose sex and quality nothing is so improper as either needless expostulations or over much curiosity in her own actions'. The advice worked. James's tone delighted Elizabeth, who responded: 'So trust I that you will not doubt but that your last letters are so acceptably taken as my thanks cannot be lacking for the same, but yield them to you in grateful sort'. In historian J. E. Neale's view, Elizabeth may not have declared her wishes openly to James, but she made them known with 'unmistakable if veiled phrases'.

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Elizabeth as shown on her tomb at Westminster AbbeyElizabeth's coffin was carried downriver at night to, on a barge lit with torches. At her funeral on 28 April, the coffin was taken to on a drawn by four horses hung with black velvet. In the words of the chronicler:Westminster was surcharged with multitudes of all sorts of people in their streets, houses, windows, leads and gutters, that came out to see the, and when they beheld her statue lying upon the coffin, there was such a general sighing, groaning and weeping as the like hath not been seen or known in the memory of man.Elizabeth was interred in Westminster Abbey, in a tomb shared with her half-sister, Mary I. The Latin inscription on their tomb, 'Regno consortes & urna, hic obdormimus Elizabetha et Maria sorores, in spe resurrectionis', translates to 'Consorts in realm and tomb, here we sleep, Elizabeth and Mary, sisters, in hope of resurrection'. Beem, Charles. The Foreign Relations of Elizabeth I (2011). Bridgen, Susan (2001).

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Political Culture in the Reign of Elizabeth I: Queen and Commonwealth, 1558–1585 (Cambridge University Press, 1999). Palliser, D. M. The Age of Elizabeth: England Under the Later Tudors, 1547–1603 (1983) survey of social and economic history. Ridley, Jasper Godwin (1989). Fromm International. Before the Armada: the growth of English foreign policy, 1485–1588 (1966), a standard history of foreign policyPrimary sources and early histories.

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76 Issue 194, pp. 469–491. Doran, Susan, and Thomas S. Freeman, eds. The Myth of Elizabeth.(2003). Greaves, Richard L., ed.

Elizabeth I, Queen of England (1974), excerpts from historians. Haigh, Christopher, ed. The Reign of Elizabeth I (1984), essays by scholars.

Howard, Maurice. 'Elizabeth I: A Sense Of Place In Stone, Print And Paint,' Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Dec 2004, Vol. 14 Issue 1, pp. 261–268. Hulme, Harold. 'Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments: The Work of Sir John Neale,' Journal of Modern History Vol.

1958), pp. 236–240. Montrose, Louis. The Subject of Elizabeth: Authority, Gender, and Representation.

(2006). Watkins, John. Representing Elizabeth in Stuart England: Literature, History, Sovereignty (2002). Michael Dobson; Nicola Jane Watson (2002). Oxford University Press, USA. Woolf, D. R. 'Two Elizabeths?

James I and the Late Queen's Famous Memory,' Canadian Journal of History, Aug 1985, Vol. 20 Issue 2, pp. 167–191.